Choline bitartrate

Choline is comprised of a quaternary ammonium group and an alcohol functional group, which are connected through an ethyl chain. Its charged cation can bind to a negative group or atom to form various salts, which can produce varying effects. Choline chloridea can form a low-melting deep eutectic solvent mixture with urea with unusual properties.^[10] The common choline bitartrate is a white crystalline powder with a melting point of 149-153 °C.^[11]

As with other salt forms, not all of the mass of a choline salt is choline. For choline bitartrate, 104.17/253.25 = 41.1% of its mass is the choline cation, the rest being the bitartrate anion. For supplements made to US labelling standards, no conversion is necessary: the amount given is for choline. The field of nutrition, for now, does not apply an analogous conversion to non-salt forms of choline such as the phospholipid forms and Alpha-GPC.^[12]

Choline and its metabolites are needed for three main physiological purposes:

• Phospholipid synthesis. Choline is required to make various phospholipids, which make up the cell membrane and signaling lipid rafts.^[13] Neural lipid rafts are receiving increasing attention in the field of psychiatry.^[14]
• Cholinergic neurotransmission, as a precursor to acetylcholine synthesis.^[2] Supplemental choline may allow acetylcholine to accumulate at higher levels than that which it otherwise would. As acetylcholine is involved in the function of memory, this could potentially account for its nootropic effects.^{[citation needed]}
• Trimethylamine (betaine) production. Trimethylamine is necessary for osmoregulation. It also participates in SAM-e synthesis.^[2]

Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWiki contributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.

It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.

Experience reports

There are currently no anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index. Additional experience reports can be found here:

• Erowid Experience Vaults: Choline

As choline is a natural precursor to acetylcholine which is naturally found in the body, it is well tolerated and therefore unlikely to be harmful in any way. Choline is non-addictive, is not known to cause brain damage, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. Similar to many other nootropics substances, there are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute choline exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it presents no negative cognitive, psychiatric or toxic physical consequences of any sort.

It is strongly recommended that one use harm reduction practices when using this substance.

Tolerance and addiction potential

Choline is not habit-forming and the desire to use it can actually decrease with use. It is most often self-regulating.

Tolerance to the effects of choline are built after prolonged and repeated usage. After that, it takes about 7 days for the tolerance to be reduced to half and 14 days to be back at baseline (in the absence of further consumption). Choline presents cross-tolerance with no other known compounds, meaning that after the consumption of choline, other psychoactive compounds will not have a reduced effect.

• Germany: Choline bitartrate is an approved dietary supplement.^[16]
• United States: In the United States, choline is legal as a dietary supplement. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) requires choline to be in non-dairy infant formula.^[17]

• Choline (Wikipedia)

• Abbott, A. P., Capper, G., Davies, D. L., Rasheed, R. K., & Tambyrajah, V. (2003). Novel solvent properties of choline chloride/urea mixtures. Chemical Communications, 99(1), 70–71. https://doi.org/10.1039/b210714g
• Behari, J., Yeh, T.-H., Krauland, L., Otruba, W., Cieply, B., Hauth, B., … Monga, S. P. S. (2010). Liver-Specific B-Catenin Knockout Mice Exhibit Defective Bile Acid and Cholesterol Homeostasis and Increased Susceptibility to Diet-Induced Steatohepatitis. The American Journal of Pathology, 176(2), 744–753. https://doi.org/10.2353/ajpath.2010.090667
• Chan, K. C., So, K. fai, & Wu, E. X. (2009). Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed choline reduction in the visual cortex in an experimental model of chronic glaucoma. Experimental Eye Research, 88(1), 65–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2008.10.002
• Doggrell, S. a, & Evans, S. (2003). Treatment of dementia with neurotransmission modulation. Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs, 12(10), 1633–54. https://doi.org/10.1517/13543784.12.10.1633
• Glier, M. B., Green, T. J., & Devlin, A. M. (2014). Methyl nutrients, DNA methylation, and cardiovascular disease. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 58(1), 172–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201200636
• Klatskin, G. (1954). the Effect of Alcohol on the Choline Requirement: Ii. Incidence of Renal Necrosis in Weanling Rats Following Short Term Ingestion of Alcohol. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 100(6), 615–627. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.100.6.615
• Nery, F. G., Stanley, J. A., Chen, H.-H., Hatch, J. P., Nicoletti, M. A., Serap Monkul, E., … Soares, J. C. (2010). Bipolar disorder comorbid with alcoholism: A 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 44(5), 278–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.09.006
• Parnetti, L., Mignini, F., Tomassoni, D., Traini, E., & Amenta, F. (2007). Cholinergic precursors in the treatment of cognitive impairment of vascular origin: Ineffective approaches or need for re-evaluation? Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 257(1–2), 264–269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2007.01.043
• Stoll, A. L., Sachs, G. S., Cohen, B. M., Lafer, B., Christensen, J. D., & Renshaw, P. F. (1996). Choline in the treatment of rapid-cycling bipolar disorder: Clinical and neurochemical findings in lithium-treated patients. Biological Psychiatry, 40(5), 382–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(95)00423-8
• Tolvanen, T., Yli-Kerttula, T., Ujula, T., Autio, A., Lehikoinen, P., Minn, H., & Roivainen, A. (2010). Biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [11C]choline: A comparison between rat and human data. European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, 37(5), 874–883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00259-009-1346-z
• Van Beek, A. H. E. A., & Claassen, J. A. H. R. (2011). The cerebrovascular role of the cholinergic neural system in Alzheimer’s disease. Behavioural Brain Research, 221(2), 537–542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2009.12.047
• Zeisel, S. H., & Da Costa, K. A. (2009). Choline: An essential nutrient for public health. Nutrition Reviews, 67(11), 615–623. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00246.x